05 The Scope of Christian Prophecy

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Introduction

Discussion of contemporary Christian prophecy and prophets continually stirs up debate. Among those who actually believe that there can be valid Christian prophecy today, there has been a tendency to lurch between the extremes of an uncritical awe of powerful prophets and an attitude bordering on self-satisfaction when the same people come unstuck, either morally or in terms of unfulfilled predictions.

 One of the key issues that arises from controversies of recent years is the paradigm under which contemporary prophets should operate. What should a modern Christian prophet look like? In particular, should they be like the prophets of the Old Testament? Frequently prophets who speak of judgement on the church or nation (like David Wilkerson) are criticized for having an Old Testament approach or theology which undercuts the gospel view of grace. On the other hand, prophets who always speak positive words are open to the same sort of attack that Jeremiah made in roundly denouncing the positive prophets of his day (Jer 28:8-9).[1]

 Another related issue relates to the scope of Christian prophetic ministry. How much freedom and authority does a true prophet have? What boundaries exist in the New Testament for prophetic activity? Can Christian prophets, operating under the new covenant, operate with similar scope to their Old Testament counterparts in terms of authority, accuracy, subject matter and potential audience?

 In this paper, therefore, I want to explore the relationship, similarities and differences between Old and New Testament prophets. In this journey, I also want to challenge some common assumptions about Old and New Testament prophecy found in charismatic and Pentecostal circles today, particularly (though not exclusively) in Australia and Asia.[2]

 It hardly needs saying that prophets are central figures in the Old Testament. They are the authors of most of the Scriptures, which are best seen as prophecy; that is, God’s word on whatever subject is being addressed, whether history, law or prediction of future events, given through His spokespersons. Prophets are also key players in the narrative/s of Israel’s history and even convey significant messages to Israel’s Gentile neighbours. Fundamentally they bring God’s perspective and decisions into every situation.

 This changes to some extent in the New Testament. The key role—as spokespersons for the Messiah—is now given to his apostles and it is their writings that are eventually canonised.[3] The New Testament church recognized, however, that “prophets are to be ranked in importance only second to apostles,”[4] that prophecy is a very significant role of the apostles[5] and that the distinction between apostles and prophets is not always clearly maintained.[6] Moreover, the church itself is viewed as a prophetic community; according to Stronstad, in Acts, “they are the eschatological community of Spirit-baptized, Spirit-empowered and Spirit-filled prophets.”[7] In other words, in fulfilment of the prophecy of Joel, all of God’s people receive the Spirit of prophecy (Acts 2:16-18; 1 Cor.14:1-5,24,31,39), though there is still a special group of prophets distinct from other believers (Acts 11:27; 1 Cor.12:28; Eph.4:11).[8]

 In order to establish how much New Testament prophets resemble their Old Testament counterparts, and to clarify the scope of New Testament prophetic activity, I want to address several questions.

1. The Scope of Authority: How much authority do New Testament prophets have, compared to the Old Testament situation?

 Wayne Grudem, in his practical and careful study of New Testament prophecy, draws a very strong contrast between Old and New Testament prophecy. Old Testament prophets’ words have “absolute divine authority” so that “to disbelieve or disobey a [true] prophet’s words is to disbelieve or disobey God.”[9] However, New Testament prophets and prophecy are at a different level: they are “speaking merely human words to report something God brings to mind.”[10] The evidence he presents for the second part of this conclusion appears persuasive: factual inaccuracies by the prophet Agabus (Acts 21:10-11),[11] Paul’s failure to “obey” prophetic direction (Acts 21:4,11-14), the need for prophecy in the church to be “weighed” (1 Cor 14:29), the encouragement from Paul for all believers to prophesy (1 Cor 14:1,5,24,31) and his insistence on the submission of prophets to his teaching (1 Cor 14:37).[12]

 Grudem rightly insists that prophecy in the New Testament required some measure of revelation from God, even though reported in the prophet’s own (fallible) words.[13] However, adoption of his view would reduce the scope and potential power of prophecy in the modern church by driving a wedge between the supposedly infallible Old Testament prophets and more fallible Christian expressions of prophecy. Because prophecy is so central to the Old Testament, and the words of the prophets best known to us have been preserved for us in Scripture, it is easy for Christians to draw one of either of two mistaken conclusions: either all prophecy (in both eras) was on the same level as Scripture (that is, divinely inspired and without error, which is the presupposition basic to evangelical cessationist arguments),[14] or New Testament prophecy was inferior to Old Testament prophecy because it does not appear to be always on this level.[15]

 A similar line of thinking to Grudem’s appears in the writing of some Pentecostal authors. For example, Gerald T. Sheppard claims that “'prophecy' among Christians is different from that of the Old Testament prophets, since it occurs without a capacity to write Scripture ,”[16] and William Kay asserts that “New Testament prophecy does not reach the same level of authority as Old Testament prophecy.”[17]

 In my opinion, this stance is open to challenge from a critical review of the evidence. To begin with, such arguments make questionable assumptions about  Old Testament prophets. A thorough study of Old Testament prophecy is beyond the scope of this paper, but the following evidence needs consideration.

 First, in the Old Testament, true prophecies are sometimes given by “false” prophets. The famous case is Balaam, whose heart was far from God although he spoke under inspiration in Numbers 23-24. A more ambiguous case is the old prophet in 1 Kings 13:11-24, who deliberately lied about an angelic word to another “man of God”, thereby inducing him to disobey an instruction from God, and then (correctly) prophesied the younger man's doom for his disobedience.[18]

 Secondly, the scope of the term “prophet” is sometimes broadened to include people who represent God even when not specific acts of prophesying; for example, “do my prophets no harm” (Ps 105:15) is applied to the patriarchs of Israel, possibly on the basis of Gen 20:7, where Abraham is described as a prophet. While it is true that the patriarchs did occasionally prophesy, this does not appear to be a prominent part of their lives.

 Thirdly, valid prophetic speech is attributed to people who are anonymous or inferior to the “main” prophets in authority, let alone being able to write Scripture; for example, the seventy elders in Num 11:25; the prophets temporarily joined by King Saul in 1 Sam 10:5-6,10-13; the prophetic singers of 1 Chr 25:1-5; and the “schools” or “companies” of prophets associated with Elijah and Elisha (2 Kgs 2:3,5,7,15; 6:1; 1 Kgs 20:35). During Elijah’s time, there were more than a hundred other prophets in Israel, some of whom were killed and others forced to hide during the persecution instigated by Jezebel (1 Kings 18:4,13).

 Fourthly, valid prophetic prediction is sometimes not fulfilled, as in the case of Jonah at Nineveh (Jonah 3), and the original pronouncement by Isaiah of Hezekiah’s impending death (changed as a result of the king’s earnest prayer; 2 Kgs 20:1-6), or is fulfilled in a different way to what may have been originally envisaged (as in the case of the prophetic words to David about his dynasty, 2 Sam 7:12-16).[19] This is partly due to the fact that prophecy is generally and fundamentally conditional, a point emphasized in Jer 18:7-10.[20]

 Fifthly, other passages appear to distinguish between different levels of valid prophetic activity. For example, in Num 12, God differentiates between Moses’ level (“with him I speak face to face- clearly, not in riddles; and he beholds the form of the LORD”, v8) and the more normal (“when there are prophets among you, I the LORD make myself known to them in visions; I speak to them in dreams”, v6).[21]

 A sixth observation may be made, that even true prophets were not inherently infallible and sometimes had to be corrected. For example, Nathan initially encouraged David in his desire to build a temple, only to be corrected by God (2 Sam 7:2-5). Randall Otto argues that true prophets simply got it wrong on occasion and would not be discredited by “occasional failures” if they “had earned a reputation for reliability due to the consistent fulfilment of… past predictions.”

 Finally, other Jewish prophecy—such as the apocalyptic literature—was not included in the Old Testament canon even though it was not all necessarily “false”. Many Jews perhaps regarded these as false prophecy, but one such book (1 Enoch) is quoted in Jude 14-15, which suggests that the authors of the New Testament saw some value in them. As late as the Jewish-Roman war of AD 66-70, prophetic oracles are found among the (non-Christian) Jews,[22] implying that the phenomenon of prophecy had not entirely disappeared even though the “canon” was apparently “closed”.[23] In fact, the process of canonisation involves just such a process of sifting as is recommended for Christian prophecy by Paul in 1 Cor 14:29. Certain material is rejected because it is false; other material is rejected (as far as inclusion in Scripture is concerned) because it may be useful, or even inspired in a measure, but is not considered to be at the level of authority expected of canonical books.

 It is clear, therefore, that there were valid prophetic utterances in the Old Testament era that were not preserved in Scripture. Ernest Gentile calls this material “secondary prophecy” which was “appropriate for the time and setting but not infallible or inerrant.”[24]  Its existence undercuts Grudem’s argument based on Paul’s apparent unconcern at the “loss” of potential prophecies in 1 Cor 14:30 [25] and Sheppard's assumption that all Old Testament prophets could write Scripture.

 Grudem himself concedes that “both the Hebrew and the Greek words for ‘prophet’ had a wide range of meanings in Jewish literature;”[26] although he is speaking here of rabbinic and other “non-canonical” material, the examples given above imply that such a “wide range of meanings” is not absent from the Old Testament itself. In fact, rather than a “black and white” assessment—the infallible true prophet versus the false self-appointed prophet—it is probably more accurate to think in terms of a continuum, with Moses at the ‘pinnacle’ (Deut 34:10; Num 12:6-8), “false prophets” at the other end and a range of prophetic quality in between, including some that are perhaps “borderline”, such as the “prophetic frenzy” (NRSV) described in 1 Sam 10:6,10; 19:20-24.[27] 

 The New Testament evidence is also not consistent with the claim that Christian prophecy was of inferior quality. While normal congregational prophecy seems to have been less authoritative than Scripture, some (apostolic) prophecy was eventually included in our Bibles.  There is evidence of prophecy in Paul’s letters: most clearly 1 Thess 4:15 and 1 Tim 4:1, and we could spread the net still wider if all predictive passages in Paul are included (such as sections of 1 Cor 15; 1 Thess 4-5; 2 Thess 2; and 2 Tim 3; half of these are in “undisputed” Pauline letters).  Moreover, the writer of 2 Peter regards Paul's writings as scripture (2 Pet.3:15-16) and this attitude is expressed during a discussion of eschatology, implying that Paul's prophetic words are especially in view. This evidence suggests that authoritative voices in the first century church already regarded some New Testament prophecy as Scripture, and that the church as a whole came to the same view during the succeeding centuries.

 Then there is the Book of Revelation, which makes claims to a Scripture-like authority, especially in the promise of blessing for the observant reader or hearer (Rev.1:3; 22:7),[28] which (according to David Aune, implies that John's document was God's word),[29] and the warnings about tampering with the text (Rev.22:18-19).

 Aune argues that the warning in Rev.22:18-19 cannot be called a “canonization formula,” nor can it be said that “John intended his book to be placed on an equal footing with the OT.” He goes on to say, however, that what he calls the “integrity formula” suggests that John “regarded his book as the record of a divine revelation that was both complete (and so unalterable) and sacred.”[30 ] Aune's distinction is rather fine: as he himself acknowledges, similar phrases are used in the Old Testament (Deut 4:2; 12:32; 29:20-21).[31] Meanwhile G.K. Beale points out that one of the Old Testament passages parallel to Rev 22:18-19 (Deut.12:32) is placed in the context of a warning about false prophecy (Deut.13:1-5),[32] highlighting the similarity between Revelation and Old Testament prophecy.

 Even when less authoritative than Scripture (as non-apostolic  prophecy clearly was) it was often quite powerful, moreso than implied by Grudem’s phrase “merely human words”. In an older article, David Hill claimed that prophetic utterances in the churches were “short statements, sometimes fairly pedestrian in character” and quite inferior to Revelation.[33] However, quite apart from Revelation, we read that two prophets “said much to encourage and strengthen the believers” (Acts 15:31), that the quite specific predictive word of Agabus motivated a church to undertake a large financial sacrifice (Acts 11:28-30), that Agabus’ second recorded prophecy included a prophetic act and an introduction resembling some Old Testament prophets (Acts 21:11),[34] that a Christian named Ananias spoke prophetically into Paul's life shortly after his conversion in a way that brought power and direction with history-making consequences (Acts 9:15-18; 22:14-15),[35] that Paul placed a very high value on prophecy (1 Cor 14:1,5; Rom 12:6) and that prophetic activity in a local church had the potential to move unbelievers or outsiders to bow down and worship, “declaring, ‘God is really among you.’” (1 Cor 14:25).[36] Such instances imply a good measure of power and authority in many cases of NT prophesying.  If the prophetic activity of the apostles and other early leaders described in Acts, apart from named “prophets”, is added to the picture, it is clear that NT prophecy is in no way inferior to the activity of Old Testament prophets.[37]

 Revelation also portrays two Christian prophets who act with authority resembling the greatest Old Testament prophets, such as Moses and Elijah, pronouncing judgements with authority on their opponents (Rev 11:5-6).[38]  Whether or not John intends us to view them as actual historical (contemporary or future) individuals, or more as symbolic of the witness of the church,[39] they seem to be pictured as Christian prophets: they prophesy (v3,6), they follow Jesus as Lord (v8) and they are explicitly labeled “prophets” (v10).

 It seems then, that there is a similar gradation of prophecy in terms of quality in the New Testament as may be observed in the Old Testament,[40] with apostolic prophecy and Revelation at the pinnacle, false prophecy at the other end[41] and some fairly ordinary material in between, including prophetic activity by brand new believers (Acts 19:6)[42] and one case of a non-Christian (the antagonistic high priest Caiaphas) speaking an inspired prophecy (John 11:51). Further, although prediction is not the heart of prophecy in either Testament, it is often present in the New Testament, as in the cases described in Acts 11 and 21, in Revelation[43] and in other cases of eschatological predictions, such as 1 Thess 4:15-18, which is told “by the word of the Lord.” We are not therefore justified on scriptural grounds in limiting the authority of Christian prophets to the very basic levels of beginners in prophecy or refusing to admit the possibility of, say, a new Elijah being raised up by God.

2. The Scope of Subject Matter: Is New Testament prophecy always positive?

On the basis of 1 Cor 14:3 (“those who prophesy speak to other people for their upbuilding and encouragement and consolation”), it is sometimes taught that New Testament prophecy is always positive, and never contains rebuke, warning or threats as is often the case with Old Testament prophecies.[44]

 Now it is almost certainly true that the majority of ordinary congregational prophecy will be of this nature,[45] and Christian prophecy will overwhelmingly express the grace that has come to us in Jesus Christ (as opposed to the threats of judgement that were needed continually in the Old Testament).[46]  For example, Paul claims that the distinctive revelation about the equality of Jews and Gentiles in the body of Christ was revealed to God's “holy apostles and prophets by the Spirit” (Eph 3:5) and this is likely to have been a key theme in the extended prophetic discourse of Judas and Silas to the church in Antioch, coming straight after the Jerusalem council decision on this point, which encouraged and strengthened the believers there (Acts 15:32). Indeed, any prophecy that contradicted the gospel of God's grace would be false prophecy! However, this does not mean that Christian prophecy will always seem positive and encouraging, if the following points are considered.

 First, the language of 1 Corinthians does not support such a conclusion. For example, the terms used in 1 Cor 14:3 do not exclude “negative” prophecy provided that the ultimate goal of the word is “upbuilding and encouragement and consolation.” As Matthias Wenk puts it, “prophetic speech is not intended to inform but rather to transform;”[47] this might require firm rebuke on occasion. The Greek word translated “encouragement” (paraklesin ) is broader than the English “encouragement”, and may be translated “exhortation,” which might well include warning and reproof. For example, the same word is used of John the Baptist’s messages, which certainly included reproof, in Luke 3:18.[48]  In fact, Paul’s terms here are very broad and seem to have been chosen mainly to contrast prophecy with tongues.[49]

 Later in the same chapter, Paul gives an example of prophecy that reads like a case of reproof in which even “the secrets of the unbeliever’s heart are disclosed” (1 Cor.14:24-25). Fee comments here that the verbs used “imply the deep probing work of the Holy Spirit in people's lives, whereby they have their sins exposed and they are called to account before the living God.”[50]

 Secondly, the two detailed examples of prophecy in Acts (those by the prophet Agabus) contain what we might call “negative” predictions: in one case a widespread famine (Acts 11:28) and in the other the arrest and binding of Paul (Acts 21:11). But if (as Stronstad suggests and I argue below) we add the Spirit-inspired speeches in Acts, then this would include, for example, Stephen’s “prophetic denunciation of the leaders of the nation of Israel.”[51]

 Thirdly, the ultimate New Testament prophetic book (Revelation) contains slabs of very threatening and warning prophecies, including parts of the messages to the seven churches in Rev 2-3, and describes two Christian prophets warning of, and modelling, judgement (Rev 11:3-6,10).

 Fourthly, Jesus himself gave some very “negative” prophecies, especially his extended warning of the coming destruction of Jerusalem and its temple (Mark 13 and parallels).[52]

 Fifthly, Paul also made “negative” predictions both in letters (as in 1 Tim 4:1) and other speeches (such as Acts 20:29-30), as did other apostles (Jude 17-18).

 Finally, both Peter (Acts 5:9-10) and Paul (Acts 13:10-12) made prophetic judgements over people that were immediately fulfilled.

 The possibility of a Christian prophet giving a word of correction, warning or even judgement cannot therefore be definitively dismissed.

3. The Scope of Audience: Is New Testament prophecy always directed at Christians?

 It is often claimed that New Testament prophecy, unlike its Old Testament counterpart, is never directed at nations, but only towards the church or individual Christians. For example, Chris Forbes argues that prophecy, as described by Paul and in Acts, “is overwhelmingly described as being an ‘in house’ phenomenon”[53] and, “there is virtually no evidence to suggest that Christian prophecy was practiced outside the gathering together of Christian groups… it is also addressed to the community, not to the wider world.”[54] Agabus’ two predictions, for example, while they conveyed information about events that would take place “outside” the church (a world-wide famine and an act of violence towards Paul), were given within the community which it would affect  (Acts 11:28; 21:11).

 This is partly correct (1 Cor 14:3-4,26-31), but the point should not be pressed too strongly. In both Testaments, most prophecy is directed at or to God’s people, those who are in covenant with Him, and is grounded in the nature of that covenant.[55]  However, an element of Old Testament prophecy is directed to the (Gentile) nations, sufficient to establish the principle that God holds all nations accountable to Him. He may bring His judgements even those not bound to Him by covenant, as much as on Israel.[56] Moreover, we have evidence that such prophecies were not just spoken to Israel about the Gentiles but were often delivered to other nations, either directly by the prophet (as in the case of Jonah and Nineveh or Daniel's words to Nebuchadnezzar and Belshazzar) or through another messenger (as in Jer 51:59-64) or even via foreign envoys to Jerusalem (as in Jer 27:3-11).

 There is no evidence in the New Testament that this principle of accountability has been abrogated. Not counting the Book of Revelation, which seems to contain extended denunciations and threats of judgement on the ancient world, other cases of prophetic words and predictions in the New Testament about the Gentile nations include: Paul’s critique of the ancient Gentile world in Rom 1:18-32; his prediction of the rise of a “man of lawlessness” among the Gentiles in 2 Thess 2:3-12;[57] and the warning about the shaking of all nations in Heb 12:26-28. The New Testament affirms that “the time has come for judgement to begin with the household of God” (1 Pet 4:17), but it does not end there. The main warnings in the New Testament obviously have to do with the eschatological judgement of all human beings, but this does not rule out temporal judgements on individual nations such as we find in detail in the Old Testament.

 There is also evidence of prophecy in the New Testament being addressed directly to non-Christians, and even having an evangelistic application. For instance, non-Christians who walked into a Christian meeting where prophecy was operating might well find themselves the object of prophetic reproof in which “the secrets of the unbeliever’s heart are disclosed” (1 Cor 14:24-25),[58]  leading to their conversion.[59] Jesus himself spoke prophetically in some of his interactions with people outside the Jewish fold, mostly notably the Samaritan woman (John 4:16-19). And his prophecy about the future work of the Holy Spirit suggests that it is partly directed at the world (John 16:8), which implies that all gifts of the Spirit (including prophecy) are not only “for the common good” of Christians (1 Cor 12:7) but have a further potential operation as part of, and in support of, the church's witness to the world (Heb 2:4).[60] A case in point is Paul's prophetic denunciation of the magician/false prophet Bar-Jesus (or Elymas), vindicated by his temporary blindness, which led to the conversion of the proconsul Sergius Paulus (Acts 13:6-12).

 Revelation, while sent specifically to seven churches, is not restricted to their affairs. John is told to prophesy “about many peoples and nations and languages and kings” (Rev 10:11). His prophecy not only warns of final judgement but of penultimate, “this age” judgements on many nations. In it, he tells of two Christian prophets who “prophesy for one thousand two hundred sixty days” (Rev 11:3)[61] in the public arena and in the teeth of great opposition and eventual martyrdom (Rev 11:3-10). Kay argues that Christian prophets are in a different position to their Old Testament predecessors because they are not operating in a theocracy.[62] This is a valid point, but Old Testament prophets also spoke to rulers in “non-theocratic” contexts at times, as in the case of Daniel (and probably Jonah) and in situations of trial—to which I now turn.

 There are many cases of speech by Christians which, though not called “prophecy”, are directed towards “secular” or “religious” authorities or non-Christians and attributed to the Holy Spirit. Jesus promises this to his followers in Matt 10:18-20 (emphasis added):

you will be dragged before governors and kings because of me, as a testimony to them and the Gentiles. When they hand you over, do not worry about how you are to speak or what you are to say; for what you are to say will be given to you at that time; for it is not you who speak, but the Spirit of your Father speaking through you .[63]

This speech is formally “testimony” (Gr. marturion ) but it could just as easily be called “prophecy” in that it is spontaneous inspired speech. Cases of this are multiplied in Acts 4:8-12 (Spirit-filled testimony to Jewish rulers); 4:31 (Spirit-filled bold speaking of the word of God); 7:55-56  (Spirit-filled vision testimony: revelation plus speech);[64] 8:29-35 (Spirit-led witness); 13:9-11 (Spirit-filled declaration of judgement immediately fulfilled); and other cases not specifically attributed to the Spirit (such as Stephen’s extended defence before the Sanhedrin, Paul’s speeches to Roman officials and King Agrippa in Acts 22-26).[65] These instances all seem to illustrate the saying in Rev 19:10: “the testimony of Jesus is the spirit of prophecy.” Similarly, witness and prophecy are described as equivalent activities in Rev 11: the two “witnesses” (v3) are engaged in prophesying (v3,6) and called prophets (v10).[66]

 The evidence in the New Testament, therefore, does not warrant a sharp restraint on the potential of Christian prophets to speak into the lives of individuals or nations outside the church.

4. The Scope of Revelation: Is Revelation a paradigmatic case of New Testament prophecy or a unique text?

 Some readers may be worried by my use of examples from Revelation in the argument so far. The Book of Revelation is the most outstanding case in the New Testament of prophecy comparable to the classical Old Testament canonical prophets in its scope. As I have argued above, Revelation claims a Scripture-like level of prophetic authority, speaks words of judgement as well as hope, contains messages for or about the nations (not just the church) and portrays Christian prophets acting with “Old Testament-like” authority and power towards an international audience (Revelation 11). Accordingly, it seems to be a strong exception to the arguments put forward that New Testament prophecy was always more limited in scope and authority than that in the Old Testament, that it was nearly always positive and that it was addressed only to believers.

 In order to sustain their arguments, then, writers like Grudem must urge that Revelation is a special case: not just an outstanding example of New Testament prophecy at its best but in a different category altogether, with few (or no) implications for the role of prophets today. As Grudem writes, “we have in this book an example of a New Testament apostle functioning as a prophet and writing for the church an extended prophecy,” “the authority which John claims is an absolute divine authority, like that claimed by the other apostles,” and therefore it “would not be appropriate” to look at Revelation for “evidence of what the gift of prophecy was like in ordinary New Testament churches.”[67] Similarly, Hill asserts that, “so far as the authority he claims and commands is concerned, he [John] stands closer to Jewish prophecy than to what we know of New Testament prophecy.”[68]

 Now it must be agreed that Revelation is unique in the New Testament prophetic material and has many features similar to classical and apocalyptic Old Testament prophecy.[69]  Apart from the features discussed above (the blessing in Rev 1:3 and the “integrity formula” in Rev 22:18-19), Revelation resembles Old Testament prophetic books in several significant points.

 First, it includes such standard prophetic fare as prophetic commissioning experiences (Rev 1:9-20; 10:1-11; compare Isa 6:1-13; Ezek 1-3),[70] visionary material (as in repeated use of the phrase “I saw”; compare Isa 6:1; Ezek 1:1,4; 8:2; Zech 1:8,18; 4:2; Jer 1:11; Dan 7:2),[71] experiences of angelic revelatory beings (Rev 1:1; 4:6; 5:2; 7:1-3; 8:2-3; 10:1,58-10; 22:6; etc; compare Isa 6:2,6-7; Ezek 1:5; Zech 1:9; 4:1; Dan 7:16; 9:21), and prophetic actions such as eating a scroll (Rev 10:9-10; compare Ezek 3:1-3) and measuring the temple (Rev 11:1-2; compare Ezek 40-42).

 Secondly, it has literary features parallel to Old Testament prophecy. For instance, it introduces the seven messages to the individual churches with a formula (“These are the words of...”) which is parallel to Old Testament introductory formulae (such as “thus says the LORD”;[72] compare Ezek 3:11; 11:5; Hos 1:2; Amos 1:3; Obad 1; Hag 1:2). According to Murphy, “this Greek phrase is used more than 250 times in the Septuagint to translate the first two words of the Hebrew kh'mr yhwh , often translated 'Thus says the Lord'.” Similar oracular language occurs in several places, such as where John includes prophecies in the first person (Rev 1:8; 16:15; 21:5; 22:7,12-13,16,20).[73] Revelation is also structured somewhat like the longer Old Testament prophetic books (Isaiah, Jeremiah and Ezekiel) in the sense that it begins with judgements and concludes with words of hope for the future of God's people.

 Third, its context is similar to that of Old Testament prophecy.  Though it also speaks about the nations, as argued above, Revelation is addressed first of all to God's people, the “seven churches”, in a situation where false prophecies were giving God's people false guidance and hope (Rev 2:20-23; compare Jer 23:9-40).[74]

 Finally, its message resembles that of Old Testament prophets. For example, it is based on God's covenant; in this case, the new covenant in Jesus Christ. This is clearest in the prophetic messages to the seven individual churches in Revelation 2-3, which open with references to the exalted Christ seen in chapter 1, contain exhortation based on values attributed to Jesus followed by positive and negative sanctions, and conclude with a general exhortation to listen to the voice of the Spirit.[75] Witherington concludes from these oracles that, “Christian prophets and seers like John saw themselves having a similar role to OT prophets as 'guardians and preservers of Christian behavior, beliefs, and customs.'”[76]

 Revelation includes both commentary on the current situation of the people of God[77] and prediction of future events, mostly near at hand, and usually conditional on their behaviour relative to the covenant.[78] Once again, this is clearest in the oracles of Revelation 2-3 but is a feature of the whole book. For example, in Rev 17-18 the prophet refers to the present (17:8,9-10,18) and the immediate future (17:8,10-14,16-17) and follows this with a prophetic lament, including an exhortation for God's people with a conditional element: “Come out of her, my people, so that you do not take part in her sins, and so that you do not share in her plagues” (18:4).  This may be compared to many passages in the Old Testament prophets, such as Isaiah 1-10 with its analysis and predictions concerning the state of Israel-Judah and the forthcoming Assyrian invasion. 

 It is clear, then, that “John saw himself, not only as one of the Christian prophets, but also as standing in the tradition of Old Testament prophecy.”[79] Revelation also contains at least one element more associated with apocalyptic in particular: it is a written document largely recording a continuous story of a single revelatory experience, as opposed to a collection of oracles given orally in a range of different contexts.  It is thus, as Bauckham points out, “a far more elaborate and studied composition than any extemporary prophecy could have been.”[80] Furthermore, it is a prophetic book full of Old Testament allusions—more so than any other book of the New Testament.[81]

 But this does not imply that it has nothing in common with other prophetic activity in the New Testament and thus of no relevance to a general understanding of New Testament prophecy and prophets. In fact, Elisabeth Schüssler Fiorenza claims that “Rev. does not distinguish between John and the prophets or between the OT and early Christian prophets”[82] and David Aune agrees that “the uniqueness of John as an early Christian prophet has been exaggerated.”[83]

 Revelation has a number of features in common with other prophecy described in the New Testament church.[84] First, it is focused on Jesus as the Messiah who has come and fulfilled Old Testament prophetic expectations (Rev 1:1,5-7; 5:5-10; etc; compare John 15:26; 16:13-14; 1 Cor 12:3; 1 John 4:1-3). As Schüssler Fiorenza points out, “the Christology of Rev. is structurally very similar to that of the Pauline and post-Pauline tradition.”[85]

 Secondly, it is addressed to believers and local churches (Rev 1:1,4,11,etc),[86] and is partly at least designed to encourage and comfort the Christian readers/hearers in the light of present and coming troubles. Thus John is speaking “to other people for their upbuilding and encouragement and consolation” (1 Cor 14:3). It is about the immediate situation of the hearers and also (at least partly) about future events soon to occur (Rev 1:1,3; 22:10; compare Agabus in Acts 11:28; 21:11). Among other things, this allows the prophecy to be “weighed” by its readers (1 Cor 14:29). Its prophecies are placed in the context of a pastoral letter (Rev 1:4-8)[87] as are most of the prophecies of Paul. 

 Moreover, although Revelation is a written text, it was born in a quasi-liturgical setting (“I was in the spirit on the Lord's day”, Rev 1:10) and is strongly liturgical in flavour. It also contains oracles that might normally have been uttered orally in the Spirit (such as Rev 2-3) and the whole text is meant to be read aloud in the gatherings of the seven churches (Rev 1:3-4,11; compare 1 Cor 14:24-31).[88] As Jean-Pierre Ruiz argues, “the evidence of Rev 1:3 and 1:10 makes it clear almost beyond dispute that John's Apocalypse was destined for oral recitation in a ritual setting.” Fekkes claims that “the vision(s) …. could hardly have been given in a cultic setting. There is little reported precedent for such a lengthy apocalyptic prophecy being related directly in the assembly...”[89] However, as he goes on to show, vision reports (such as the Christian apocalypse Shepherd of Hermas ) could be received and recorded privately and then read aloud in church settings.[90] 

 Thirdly, Revelation frequently attributes its prophetic words to the Holy Spirit (Rev 2:7, etc; 14:13; compare Acts 11:28; 13:2; 21:4,11; 1 Cor 12:10-11).

 Finally, some of the features Revelation shares with Old Testament prophecy are also found in other places in the New Testament: for example, prophetic commissioning narratives (Acts 22:6-15; Gal.1:15), prophetic actions (Acts 21:11), visions (Acts 10:10-16; 2 Cor 12:1-4), angelic messengers (Acts 10:3-6; 27:23-24) and prophetic conflict (1 John 4:1-6).

 It is also important to note that John nowhere calls himself an apostle and never claims any kind of apostolic authority over the seven churches to which he is writing.[91] His authority is purely prophetic: it is based on the assumption that he is speaking at Christ’s direction (even dictation) and under the Spirit’s inspiration.[92] Revelation calls itself “prophecy” (Rev 1:3; 22:7,10,18,19), a term used in the New Testament of Old Testament material (Matt 13:14; 2 Pet 1:20-21) but also of prophetic activity within the church (Rom 12:5; 1 Cor 12:10; 1 Tim 1:18; 4:14).

 And though he claims to be in a sense above criticism (in contrast to 1 Cor 14:29), and asserts that his prophetic words are “trustworthy and true” (Rev 21:5; 22:6) and must not be tampered with (Rev 22:18-19), in fact he is submitting his prophecy for “weighing up” by the seven churches, whom he hopes will “listen to what the Spirit is saying” (Rev 2:7 and parallels). This is contrary to the frequent assertion that “John has no interest in having his prophecy tested or evaluated by others and leaves no room to do so.”[93]  Fekkes allows that John approves of testing of claims to authority (Rev 2:2) and that “we do not know what kind of response John's book received in the churches.”[94] However, both these concessions undermine the claim he and others make that John's strong claims to authority prevent his prophecies being tested by the churches.

 We can agree that John is confident of his credibility among his audience and that he makes Scripture-like claims (as argued above) without attributing to him a resistance to all evaluation.  The phrasing here (“he who has an ear”) and the repetition of the exhortation may even be taken to imply that not all the hearers would accept it.[95]  But what in fact happened over the next few decades and centuries was that the church did “weigh” this prophecy and found it valuable and trustworthy, so much so that it was included in what became the New Testament. But this does not mean Revelation is in a different category to New Testament prophecy in general; rather it should be seen, “as a genuine expression of early Christian prophecy whose basic experience and understanding is apocalyptic,”[96] indeed as an outstanding paradigmatic case of New Testament prophesying. It thus helps to narrow the gap between Old and New Testament prophetic activity and to broaden the scope of Christian prophesying.

 This does not mean that current Christian prophets can expect to function with the same level of authority as John or that their words could in special cases be canonised.[97] Extending the canon would indeed be opening a “can of worms.” But it does imply that New Testament prophets can sometimes speak about areas beyond local (even individual) concerns, as Agabus did with his prediction of world-wide famine (Acts 11:28; compare Rev 11:6), can bring words of correction, warning and rebuke as well as positive encouragement (Rev 2-3), may at times prophesy powerful plagues on an unbelieving world (Rev 11:6; compare Acts 13:9-11) and can command a hearing beyond their own local congregation, though not on the basis of a claim to apostolic authority.

Concluding Thoughts: Releasing the Prophets.

If my argument so far is sustained, there are some clear implications for how prophets should operate in the contemporary church. It would suggest that the church needs to make room for proven prophets to operate with a minimum of restrictions as to how, and to whom, and about what, they speak. This has the potential to release a powerful prophetic ministry into the church and from the church into the wider world. As John Goldingay puts it, “If prophetic ministry is exercised today, then, we should expect this to reduce the domestication of God that characterizes us as evangelicals and charismatics.”[98] Such a change would certainly make our experience of God more vital and life-transforming.

Such a release of prophecy could, of course, produce huge problems. The first and most obvious one is false or spurious prophecy. Most readers of this article would know of recent cases of both local and translocal false prophecies and self-appointed prophets who frequently appeal (mistakenly, in my view) to Jeremiah as a precedent for their activities.  They have often brought contemporary prophecy into disrepute and provided ammunition for cessationists and non-Christians. But this is nothing new. Both Old and New Testament prophets had to contend with competition from false prophets. The answer to this problem is not to suppress or reject all prophecy, as perhaps the Thessalonians were tempted to do (1 Thess 5:19-20), but to “test” it (1 Thess 5:21; 1 Cor 14:29; 1 John 4:1).[99]

The second problem, which we do not always acknowledge, is that prophecy and prophets can cause trouble, especially when they are speaking from the Lord . Their words often challenge the status quo, put church leaders into difficult positions and even provoke persecution and criticism from non-Christians. We would rather not have such people around disturbing the peace, but we need them just as the seven churches of Asia needed the Spirit's messages through John (Rev 2-3).   

Both problems point to the need for accountability on the part of prophets. All prophets, even the most credible and powerful, need to operate within recognised structures of accountability, not either demanding obedience from churches nor refusing to listen to correction or disagreement from other church leaders. After all, as Christians they are part of, not above, the body of Christ and as such must “be subject to one another out of reverence for Christ” (Eph 5:21).[100]

Finally, the repute and effectiveness of prophets would be enhanced if church leaders and experienced prophets took a hand in mentoring, encouraging and training emerging prophets, and correcting them, so that their words become more accurate and their lives don’t fall apart.[101]

How all this might look in specific situations will obviously vary, but there is the possibility that great blessing and power may flow if the prophets are released.[102]

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Bibliography

Ahn, Yongan Jeon. “Prophecy in the Pauline Communities.” The Spirit and Church 3.1 (2001):71-95.

Ash, Jr, James L. “The Decline of Ecstatic Prophecy in the Early Church.” Theological Studies 37.2 (1976): 227-252.

Aune, David E. Prophecy in Early Christianity and the Ancient Mediterranean World . Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1983.

Aune, David E. “The Apocalypse of John and the Problem of Genre.” Semeia 36 (1986): 65-96.

Aune, David E. Revelation. 3 vols. Word Biblical Comentary . Nashville: Thomas Nelson, 1998.

Aune, David E. Apocalypticism, Prophecy, and Magic in Early Christianity. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2008.

Bauckham, Richard. The Theology of the Book of Revelation . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993.

Beale, G.K.The Book of Revelation: A Commentary on the Greek Text . Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1999.

Bevere, John. Thus Saith the Lord? Lake Mary: Creation House, 1999.

Bickle, Mike. Growing in the Prophetic . Eastbourne: Kingsway, 1995.

Bittlinger, Arnold. Gifts and Graces . London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1967.

Boring, M. Eugene. “The Apocalypse as Christian Prophecy: A Discussion of the Issues Raised by the Book of Revelation for the Study of Early Christian Prophecy.” George MacRae, ed., SBL 1974 Seminar Papers , vol.2. Cambridge, US: Society of Biblical Literature, 1974: 43-62.

Cartledge, Mark J. Practical Theology: Charismatic and Empirical Perspectives . Carlisle: Paternoster Press, 2003.

Clifton, Shane. “Editorial: The Courage to be Prophets.” Australasian Pentecostal Studies 12 (2009). Downloaded 11/09/2010

Cooke, Graham. Developing Your Prophetic Gifting. Grand Rapids: Chosen Books, 2003.

Deere, Jack. Surprised by the Voice of God. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1996.

Ellison, H.L. Men Spake From God . Carlisle: Paternoster, 1966.

Fee, Gordon D. God's Empowering Presence: The Holy Spirit in the Letters of Paul . Peabody: Hendrickson, 1994.

Fekkes III, Jan. Isaiah and Prophetic Traditions in the Book of Revelation: Visionary Antecedents and Their Development . JSOT Supplement Series 93. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1994.

Forbes, Christopher. Prophecy and Inspired Speech . Peabody: Hendrickson, 1997.

Gentile, Ernest B. Your Sons and Daughters Shall Prophesy . Grand Rapids: Chosen Books, 1999.

Giles, Kevin. Patterns of Ministry Among the First Christians . North Blackburn: Collins Dove, 1989.

Goldingay, John. “Old Testament Prophecy Today.” The Spirit and Church 3.1 (2001):27-46.

Green, Joel B. How To Read Prophecy . Downers Grove: IVP, 1984.

Grudem, Wayne. The Gift of Prophecy in the New Testament and Today . Eastbourne: Kingsway, 1988.

Hill, David. “Prophecy and Prophets in the Revelation of St John.” New Testament Studies 18 (1972):401-418.

Holdcroft, L. Thomas. The Holy Spirit: A Pentecostal Interpretation . Springfield: Gospel Publishing House, 1979.

Horton, Stanley M. What the Bible Says About the Holy Spirit. Springfield: Gospel Publishing House, 1976.

Houston, Graham. Prophecy Now . Leicester: IVP, 1989.

Kay, William K. Prophecy ! Nottingham: Lifestream Publications, 1991.

Keener, Craig S. The Spirit in the Gospels and Acts . Peabody: Hendrickson, 1997.

Kistemaker, Simon J. New Testament Commentary: Exposition of the Book of Revelation . Grand Rapids: Baker, 2001.

Kydd, Ronald A.N. Charismatic Gifts in the Early Church . Peabody: Hendrickson, 1984.

Lednicky, H. Maurice. “Apostles, Prophets, and Evangelists in the Twenty-first Century Church.” In James K. Bridges, ed., Pentecostal Gifts and Ministries in a Postmodern Era . Springfield: Gospel Publishing House, 2004: 131-166.

Lee, Sang-Whan. “Pentecostal Prophecy.” The Spirit and Church 3.1 (2001):147-171.

Mazzaferi, F.D. The Genre of the Book of Revelation from a Source-Critical Perspective . Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 1989.

Menzies, Robert P. Empowered for Witness: The Spirit in Luke-Acts . JPT Supplement Series 6. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1994.

Moore, Rickie D. “The Prophet as Mentor: A Crucial Facet of the Biblical Presentation of Moses, Elijah and Isaiah.” Journal of Pentecostal Theology 15 (2007):155-172.

Murphy, Frederick J. Fallen Is Babylon: the Revelation to John ; Harrisburg: Trinity Press International, 1998.

Newton, Jon. K. “Holding Prophets Accountable.” The Journal of the European Pentecostal Theological Association 30.1 (2010): 63-79.

Otto, Randall E. “The Prophets and Their Perspective.” Catholic Biblical Quarterly 63 (2001): 219-240.

Poloma, Margaret M. Main Street Mystics . Walnut Creek: AltaMira Press, 2003.

Robeck, Cecil M. “Written Prophecies: A Question of Authority.” PNEUMA: The Journal of the Society for Pentecostal Studies 2 (1980):26-45.

Ruiz, Jean-Pierre.  “Betwixt and Between on the Lord's Day: Liturgy and the Apocalypse.” Eugene H. Lovering, ed., SBL 1992 Seminar Papers . Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1992: 654-672.

Ruthven, Jon. “The ‘Foundational Gifts’ of Ephesians 2.20.” Journal of Pentecostal Theology 10 (2002):28-43.

Russell, D.S. The Method and Message of Jewish Apocalyptic. London: SCM Press, 1964.

Schüssler Fiorenza, Elisabeth. The Book of Revelation: Justice and Judgment . Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1998.

Sheppard, Gerald T. “Prophecy: From Ancient Israel to Pentecostals at the End of the Modern Age.” The Spirit and Church 3.1 (2001):47-70.

Stefan, Crinisor. “The Paraclete and Prophecy in the Johannine Community.” PNEUMA: The Journal of the Society for Pentecostal Studies 27.2 (2005): 273-296.

Stronstad, Roger. The Prophethood of All Believers: A Study in Luke’s Charismatic Theology . JPT Supplement Series 16. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 2003.

Trevett, Christine. “Gender, Authority and Church History; A Case Study of Montanism.” Feminist Theology: The Journal of the Britain and Ireland School of Feminist Theology 17 (1998):9-24.

Turner, Max. The Holy Spirit and Spiritual Gifts: Then and Now . Carlisle: Paternoster Press, 1996.

Waddell, Robby. The Spirit of the Book of Revelation . Blandford Forum, UK: Deo, 2006.

Wagner, C. Peter. The Book of Acts: A Commentary . Ventura: Regal, 2008.

Wall, Robert W.  Revelation. New International Biblical Commentary . Peabody: Hendrickson, 1991.

Warrington, Keith. Discovering the Holy Spirit in the New Testament . Peabody: Hendrickson, 2005.

Wenk, Matthias. “The Creative Power of the Prophetic Dialogue.” PNEUMA: The Journal of the Society for Pentecostal Studies 26.1 (2004): 118-129.

Witherington III, Ben. Revelation . New Cambridge Bible Commentary. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003.

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Endnotes

1. See, for example, John Bevere, Thus Saith the Lord? (Lake Mary: Creation House, 1999). Shane Clifton points to a similar dilemma facing Pentecostal academics embracing a “prophetic responsibility” in his editorial in Australasian Pentecostal Studies 12 (2009).

2. I am not suggesting that all, or any, of the ideas I criticize in this article represent the majority or dominant view among Pentecostals and charismatics anywhere. However, they are views I have encountered in thirty years of Pentecostal ministry and reading.

3. Cf. Ernest B. Gentile, Your Sons and Daughters Shall Prophesy (Grand Rapids: Chosen Books, 1999), 150ff.

4. Jan Fekkes III, Isaiah and Prophetic Traditions in the Book of Revelation (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1994), 29.

5. For an account of the prophetic ministry of the most prominent apostles and leaders in the primitive church, see Roger Stronstad, The Prophethood of All Believers: A Study in Luke’s Charismatic Theology (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 2003), Chapters 5-6. On Paul as prophet, see Kevin Giles, Patterns of Ministry Among the First Christians (Blackburn North: Collins Dove, 1989), 138.

6. The relationship between apostles and prophets in the New Testament church (and the concept of apostles in itself) is complex and beyond the scope of this article to explore in depth. Certainly the clear-cut subordination of prophets to apostles argued for by writers such as Grudem is oversimplified. “Apostles and prophets” are sometimes associated as equals, if not as equivalent terms (e.g. Eph.2:20; 3:5). In other places, they are clearly differentiated (e.g. Eph.4:11) and prophets are ranked “second” (e.g. 1 Cor.12:28). Certainly not all prophets are apostles: this seems clear from Paul's discussion in 1 Cor.14 and the examples of prophets named in Acts (e.g. Agabus, Judas and Silas and perhaps Philip's daughters). Paul appears to claim an apostolic authority over local prophets in Corinth in 1 Cor.14:37. For discussion of the relationship between prophets and other leaders in the early church, cf Jon K. Newton, “Holding Prophets Accountable”, JEPTA 30.1 (2010): 73-76.

7. Stronstad, Prophethood of All Believers, 15. See also Ibid., 65-70; Robert P. Menzies, Empowered for Witness (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1994), 202.

8. See Menzies, Empowered for Witness , 188f, on the balance here.

9. Wayne Grudem, The Gift of Prophecy in the New Testament and Today (Eastbourne: Kingsway, 1988), 20, 78. This view may be supported from Deut 18:18-19 and the common introductory phrase, “thus says the LORD”. See also Graham Houston, Prophecy Now (Leicester: IVP, 1989), 30.

10. Grudem, Prophecy , 67.

11. See comments in Gentile, Sons and Daughters , 207.

12. Grudem, Prophecy, 67-114. Comp Gentile, Sons and Daughters , 172-176.

13. Grudem, Prophecy , 115-121.

14. Cf Grudem, Prophecy, 13. Much of Grudem’s argument is shaped by the need to counter such cessationism in the light of his acceptance of the cessationist premise in the case of Old Testament prophecy and New Testament apostleship. Comp. Jon Ruthven, “The ‘Foundational Gifts’ of Ephesians 2.20”, Journal of Pentecostal Theology 10 (2002):28-43 and see comments in Gordon D. Fee, God's Empowering Presence: The Holy Spirit in the Letters of Paul (Peabody: Hendrickson, 1994), 892.

15. Cf. David E. Aune, Prophecy in Early Christianity and the Ancient Mediterranean World (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1983), 5.

16. Gerald T. Sheppard, “Prophecy: From Ancient Israel to Pentecostals at the End of the Modern Age”, The Spirit and Church 3.1 (2001): 55.

17. William K. Kay, Prophecy! (Nottingham: Lifestream Publications, 1991), 36.

18. Incidentally, the prophecies given by the disobedient prophet were valid and fulfilled (1 Kgs 13:1-6; 2 Kgs 23:15-17).

19. Another case is Huldah's prophecy that King Josiah would die in peace without seeing the disaster of the captivity (2 Chr 34:28). While Josiah didn't live to see the captivity, he was killed in battle, hardly a peaceful death (2 Chr 35:23-24). The author of Chronicles does not explain this but it appears that his premature death was the result of his own foolish decision to engage the king of Egypt in battle (2 Chr 35: 20-22). See also Ellison, Men Spake, 17ff, and Randall E. Otto, “The Prophets and Their Perspective”, Catholic Biblical Quarterly 63 (2001):223ff, for two contrasting perspectives on unfulfilled prophecy in the Old Testament.

20. Space precludes a full argument for this point here. Cf. Newton, “Holding Prophets Accountable,” 70-72.

21. Otto, “Prophets and Perspective,” 225. Jack Deere also argues that Deut 18 does not require prophets to be completely error free (Surprised by the Voice of God ; Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1996: 362ff).

22. Aune, Prophecy, 135-143; Fekkes, Isaiah and Prophetic Traditions , 26.

23. Commentators nowadays are divided over whether or not all prophecy was believed to have ceased after Malachi. Fekkes claims such an idea has been “dismissed by modern scholars” (Isaiah and Prophetic Traditions, 26). Aune argues that prophecy did not disappear but rather underwent radical changes (Prophecy, 81, 103-147). Stronstad, on the other hand, argues that “with a few exceptions... prophecy had ceased in Israel” (Prophethood of All Believers, 39) and Menzies supports a similar conclusion with his assessment of evidence from Josephus, Philo and rabbinic literature (Menzies, Empowered for Witness, 55f,61,84-87). Certainly the passages often appealed to in 1 Maccabees (4:41-46; 9:27; 14:41), 2 Baruch 85:3 and Psalm 74:9 do not seem to support such a generalised conclusion, but rather seem to refer to a particular period in Israel's history. In fact, using Psalm 74:9 to support the conclusion that prophecy had disappeared seems self-refuting if Psalm 74 is validly part of the Old Testament canon. On these passages, and especially Tosefta Sotah 13:2-4, see the careful discussion in Max Turner, The Holy Spirit and Spiritual Gifts: Then and Now (Carlisle: Paternoster Press, 1996), 190ff. Perhaps the consensus behind these varying conclusions is that prophecy was less frequent and of lower quality in the “intertestamental” period. The evidence clearly suggests that, on the one hand, prophetic activity still continued (cf Giles, Patterns of Ministry, 129) and, on the other, no prophecies were accepted by the Jewish community as equal to the scriptural examples. As Keener comments, “while there may have existed in various circles a belief that prophets no longer existed as they had in biblical times, no one, including the rabbis, denied that revelatory experiences continued to be possible” (Craig S. Keener, The Spirit in the Gospels and Acts ; Peabody: Hendrickson: 15) and “particularly outside the rabbinic literature, prophecy was generally not believed to have ceased” (Ibid., 16).

24. Cf Gentile, Sons and Daughters , 152. See also Ibid., 32f.

25. Grudem, Prophecy, 79f; comp H.L. Ellison, Men Spake From God (Carlisle: Paternoster, 1966), 17.

26. Grudem, Prophecy , 36.

27. The term “frenzy” in the NRSV arises from the description of what happens rather than the Hebrew text, which simply uses the ordinary terminology for prophesying. Turner suggests it may have been “some kind of invasively inspired worship rather than specifically oracular intelligible speech” (Holy Spirit and Spiritual Gifts , 189).

28. Comp Psalm 1:1-3; Luke 11:28; Matt.7:24,26.

29. Aune, Revelation 1-5 (Word Biblical Comentary; Dallas: Word Books, 1997),11.

30. Aune, Revelation 17-22 (Word Biblical Comentary; Nashville: Thomas Nelson, 1998), 1231.

31. Aune, Revelation 17-22, 1209.

32. G.K.Beale, The Book of Revelation: A Commentary on the Greek Text (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1999), 1151. See also Fekkes, Isaiah and Prophetic Traditions,  56f; Frederick J. Murphy, Fallen Is Babylon: the Revelation to John (Harrisburg: Trinity Press International, 1998), 439.

33. David Hill, “Prophecy and Prophets in the Revelation of St John;” New Testament Studies 18 (1972):416.

34. New Testament prophetic words are frequently attributed to the Holy Spirit (cf Crinisor Stefan, “The Paraclete and Prophecy in the Johannine Community;” Pneuma 27.2; 2005: 278f).

35. Cf Gentile, Sons and Daughters , 200.

36. Cf Fee, Empowering Presence , 202,607.

37. Cf Stronstad, Prophethood of All Believers , Chapters 5-6. I have omitted discussion of the prophetic activity described in Luke’s “infancy narratives” and the ministry of John the Baptist; this seems to be at the top end of the scale of prophetic authority whether classified as Old or New Testament.

38. The identity of these two prophets or witnesses is hotly debated. Were they actual figures of the early church, e.g. Peter and Paul? Were they representative of the prophetic-witnessing activity of the whole church or “the messianic remnant” of the Jews (cf. Rev 19:10)? Or are they literal future prophets who minister just before the parousia? Cf Hill, “Prophecy and Prophets,” 407f; David E. Aune, Revelation 6-16 (Nashville: Thomas Nelson, 1998), 598-603. The OT figures on which the two prophets are modelled is also debatable, but according to Aune (Ibid., 600), “most modern scholars... think that the author intended to use Moses and Elijah as prophetic models.”

39. As argued recently by Robby Waddell, The Spirit of the Book of Revelation (Blandford Forum: Deo, 2006), 170-188.

40. Perhaps implied by Paul when he writes about people prophesying “in proportion to faith” (Rom.12:6). Cf. Grudem, Prophecy, 208f; Turner, Holy Spirit and Spiritual Gifts, 211.

41. This could also be quite “powerful” and disruptive, to judge from passages such as 2 Thess 2:2, 1 John 4:1-3, Acts 16:17 and Rev 2:20-23. Cf. Fekkes, Isaiah and Prophetic Traditions , 27f.

42. The signs given when believers were filled with the Holy Spirit, including tongues, were prophetic in nature, indicating that the Spirit came as “the Spirit of prophecy” (Stronstad, Prophethood of All Believers, 69,108). Grudem (Prophecy, 92) compares Acts 19:6 with the companies of prophets associated with Elijah and Elisha. Turner compares it with 1 Sam 10 and 19 and Num.11 (Holy Spirit and Spiritual Gifts , 194).

43. This does not depend on a Futurist or Historicist view of Revelation. Most interpreters of all interpretive schools find at least some (short-term and long-term) prediction in Revelation, e.g. the description of the final judgement in Rev.20:11-15.

44. Jer 28:8-9 suggests this was normal, though even Jeremiah gave positive predictions at times

45. See discussion in Fee, Empowering Presence , 219f.

46. See discussion in Gentile, Sons and Daughters , 144-153.

47. Matthias Wenk, “The Creative Power of the Prophetic Dialogue;” Pneuma 26.1 (2004): 119. Comp. Graham Cooke, Developing Your Prophetic Gifting (Grand Rapids: Chosen Books, 2003), 124f.

48. Fekkes claims that 1 Cor 14;3 “reveals nothing about the content of prophetic speech” (Isaiah and Prophetic Traditions , 29); I wouldn't go this far.

49. Cf. Christopher Forbes, Prophecy and Inspired Speech (Peabody: Hendrickson, 1997), 237f; Turner, Holy Spirit and Spiritual Gifts , 201f.

50. Fee, Empowering Presence, 245. Comp. Fekkes, Isaiah and Prophetic Traditions, 30f and Kay, Prophecy!, 59f.

51. Stronstad, Prophethood of All Believers , 90.

52. These warnings by Jesus were largely for the sake of His disciples, to help them withstand persecution and warn them to get out of Jerusalem at the appropriate time (e.g. Mark 13:9-19). For a modern parallel, where Armenian Pentecostals were given advance warning of coming trouble and directed to migrate to the USA, see Gentile, Sons and Daughters , 93ff.

53. Inspired Speech, 22. See also Fekkes, Isaiah and Prophetic Traditions , 42.

54. Inspired Speech, 246. Comp Giles, Patterns of Ministry, 147f; L. Thomas Holdcroft, The Holy Spirit: A Pentecostal Interpretation (Springfield: Gospel Publishing House, 1979), 170.

55. Cf John Goldingay, “Old Testament Prophecy Today”; The Spirit and Church 3.1 (2001):34f.

56. Examples include Isa 13-23; Jer 46-51; Ezek 25-32; Amos 1:1-2:5; Obadiah; Jonah; Nahum. .

57. Assuming that this was written by Paul. But even if not, it would still reflect early church practice.

58. Cf. Cooke, Developing Prophetic Gifting , 36f.

59. Fee, Empowering Presence, 246; see also Yongan Jeon Ann, “Prophecy in the Pauline Communities;” The Spirit and Church 3.1 (2001): 88f.

60. I have experienced this myself as part of a ministry in the Melbourne (Australia) MindBodySpirit festival which attracts thirty thousand plus spiritual seekers every year. The interdenominational team assembled each year under the banner of the “School of the Prophets” spoke into people's lives with prophecies, “words of knowledge”, interpretations of dreams and healing prayers.

61. Even in the Reformation era, there were valid prophets who pronounced God’s judgements on individuals and cities (Deere, Surprised , 70-78).

62. Kay, Prophecy!, 65.

63. Cf. Stronstad, Prophethood of All Believers , 60.

64. Indeed the whole ministry of Stephen is prophetic in power and scope (Stronstad, Prophethood of All Believers , 16f, 87-90).

65. Cf. Gentile, Sons and Daughters, 191ff; Stronstad, Prophethood of All Believers , 74, 82ff, 118f. Stronstad argues convincingly that the language Luke uses in Acts shows that he sees Spirit-filled witness as prophetic in nature.

66. See discussion in Waddell, Spirit in Revelation , 26-33, 189-191.

67. Grudem, Prophecy , 43f, 110.

68. Hill, “Prophecy and Prophets,” 410. Comp. Fekkes, Isaiah and Prophetic Traditions , 57f.

69. The extended debate about the genre of Revelation, which included argument about whether it should be seen as primarily prophecy or apocalyptic writing (like Daniel, 1 Enoch, etc), seems to have come to a broad consensus that Revelation is both prophetic and apocalyptic or prophetic-apocalyptic. Apocalyptic writing should be seen as a sub-class of prophecy. Cf. Aune, Revelation, 1-5, lxxv-xc; Beale, Book of Revelation, 37-39; Richard Bauckham, The Theology of the Book of Revelation (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993), 4-12. For an extended argument that Revelation is more like classical prophecy than apocalyptic, see F.D. Mazzaferi, The Genre of the Book of Revelation from a Source-Critical Perspective (Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 1989).

70. Cf. Mazzaferi, Genre of Revelation,  102f; Aune, Revelation 1-5, liv; Fekkes, Isaiah and Prophetic Traditions , 51f,73f (Fekkes identifies four common elements in the call narratives of John, Isaiah and Ezekiel).

71. Perhaps his reports of “hearing” are even more relevant in terms of similarity to OT prophecy, as argued by M. Eugene Boring, “The Apocalypse as Christian Prophecy” (in George MacRae, ed., SBL 1974 Seminar Papers , vol.2; Cambridge, US: Society of Biblical Literature, 1974), 47.

72. Murphy, Fallen Is Babylon, 101. Aune, however, points out that the phrase was also used occasionally in pagan oracles and Persian decrees (David E. Aune, Apocalypticism, Prophecy, and Magic in Early Christianity; Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2008:217f).  Cf. Fekkes, Isaiah and Prophetic Traditions , 53f;

73. Cf. Fekkes, Isaiah and Prophetic Traditions , 54f.

74. Cf. Fekkes, Isaiah and Prophetic Traditions , 50f.

75. What Aune calls a “proclamation formula” that functions as a “prophetic signature”; these often introduce OT prophetic oracles (Aune, Apocalypticism, Prophecy, and Magic , 222).

76. Ben Witherington III, Revelation (New Cambridge Bible Commentary; Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003), 41; partly quoting from Aune, Prophecy, 277.

77. This is one way in which Revelation differs from most apocalypses and resembles classical OT prophecy (Cf. Bauckham, Theology of Revelation, 7,12). Of course apocalypses were also written for the current situation of the readers, but in the guise of ancient prophecy now coming to fulfilment (cf. D.S. Russell, The Method and Message of Jewish Apocalyptic ; London: SCM Press, 1964: 99).

78. Of course, there are other predictions which seem unconditional and deterministic (e.g. Rev 1:1; 22:6) but this should not obscure the many conditional statements (e.g. Rev 22:18-19). See also Mazzaferi, Genre of Revelation , 135,140,366f.

79. Bauckham, Theology of Revelation , 4.

80. Bauckham, Theology of Revelation, 3. Mazzaferi argues that John's written communication is determined by his situation of exile rather than generic considerations (Genre of Revelation , 330).

81. Exactly how many allusions are made in Revelation to the OT is hard to determine, since the author gives few literary clues to tell us when he is making such allusions. Estimates range from 195 to 1000 (Cf. Beale, Book of Revelation, 77, n.16; Simon J. Kistemaker, New Testament Commentary: Exposition of the Book of Revelation; Grand Rapids: Baker, 2001: 17f; Fekkes, Isaiah and Prophetic Traditions, 62). This feature of Revelation is also parallel to at least some OT prophets, who frequently allude to themes in the earlier Scriptural texts, as in Isaiah's “new exodus” passages; Revelation also has many allusions to the Exodus (Fekkes, Isaiah and Prophetic Traditions , 80f).

82. Elisabeth Schüssler Fiorenza, The Book of Revelation: Justice and Judgment (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1998), 136. See also Ibid., 133,149ff and Fekkes, Isaiah and Prophetic Traditions , 50.

83. Aune, Prophecy, 207. Aune considers that John may have been one of a circle or guild of Christian prophets analogous to the “schools” of prophets in the OT (Aune, Revelation 1-5, liv). See also Bauckham, Theology of Revelation , 2.

84. Some years ago, M. Eugene Boring  (“Apocalypse as Christian Prophecy”, 44-62) constructed a list of features of early Christian prophecy gleaned exclusively from Revelation, suggesting that the differences between Revelation and other Christian prophecy are more “in degree than in kind” and hence that Revelation “might still serve as a source of information on prophetism in some Asia Minor churches” (Ibid., 56). As he did not go on to investigate whether or not these features are also found in other New Testament sources, his conclusions are not definitive, but they certainly show that treating Revelation as an exemplar of Christian prophecy is a viable task.  Comp. Fiorenza, Justice and Judgment , 149.

85. Fiorenza, Justice and Judgment , 148.

86. Compare Agabus in Acts 11:28-29, Judas and Silas in Acts 15:32 and the context of Paul’s instructions in 1 Cor 14

87. Cf. Robert W. Wall, Revelation (New International Biblical Commentary. Peabody: Hendrickson, 1991), 13; Bauckham, Theology of Revelation, 12-17; Beale, Book of Revelation, 38f; Aune, Revelation 1-5, lxxii-lxxv.

88. J-P Ruiz, “Betwixt and Between on the Lord's Day: Liturgy and the Apocalypse” (in Eugene H. Lovering, ed., SBL 1992 Seminar Papers; Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1992), 663. Cf. Bauckham, Theology of Revelation , 3f.

89. Fekkes, Isaiah and Prophetic Traditions , 42.

90. Fekkes, Isaiah and Prophetic Traditions, 43-49. Revelation “contains both oracular speech and vision experiences” as is shown by some of its formal literary elements (Ibid., 47). See also Boring, “Apocalypse as Christian Prophecy”, 54; David E. Aune, “The Apocalypse of John and the Problem of Genre”; Semeia 36 (1986): 81.

91. This does rule out the possibility that he was the apostle John, the son of Zebedee, as traditionally affirmed by the majority of the church, and does not negate the idea that it was accepted into the canon on this assumption.

92. Cf. Turner, Holy Spirit and Spiritual Gifts, 211; Fiorenza, Justice and Judgment, 151; Fekkes, Isaiah and Prophetic Traditions , 66..

93. Fekkes, Isaiah and Prophetic Traditions , 57. 

94. Fekkes, Isaiah and Prophetic Traditions , 57, n.116.

95. Cf. Aune, Prophecy , 207f.

96. Fiorenza, Justice and Judgment,  140.

97. Sang-Whan Lee seems to come close to saying this by repudiating the idea that prophecy is inferior or subordinate to the biblical revelation, suggesting instead that there is an ongoing revelation in history and prophecy can add to the revelation in Scripture in significant ways (“Pentecostal Prophecy”; The Spirit and Church 3.1, 2001: 166-169). In one sense this is unexceptional but could make way for “new doctrine”, an idea that nearly all Pentecostals, not to mention other Christians, would reject.

98. Goldingay, “Old Testament Prophecy Today”, 40. See also Stronstad, Prophethood of All Believers , 123.

99. Cf. Fee, Empowering Presence , 58-61. How this can be done is a subject in itself.

100. For further discussion of this theme, see Newton, “Holding Prophets Accountable”, 63-72.

101. As argued powerfully in Rickie D. Moore, “The Prophet as Mentor: A Crucial Facet of the Biblical Presentation of Moses, Elijah and Isaiah”; Journal of Pentecostal Theology 15 (2007):155-172.

102. One of the best proposals for how this might happen is presented in Cooke, Developing Prophetic Gift, especially 217-288. See also Gentile, Sons and Daughters, 259